In the era of the internet and mass communication, the desire to capture the attention of a broad audience is one of the most common temptations. It is therefore no surprise that interest in the apocalypse and the signs of the times is high. Directly proportional to the number of apocalyptic interpretations is the lack of seriousness in most of them—which often borders on the ridiculous. For example, I recently had a good laugh when, in response to certain posts on Dr. Taylor Marshall’s YouTube channel, speculating on the identity of the Antichrist as King Charles III of England, Dr. Joseph Shaw humorously replied, “Be careful, Marshall; someone might call you an Antichrist!”[1] Indeed, when the approach is superficial and sensationalist, the results are trivial, and such accusations (like those against His Majesty, King Charles III) discredit serious reflections on crucial topics.
And yet, despite the risks, we acknowledge the validity of a statement by Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger from his famous dissertation on the theology of history according to Saint Bonaventure:
“It is above all times of greatest crisis in human history that we find men concerned with the theology and philosophy of history.”[2]
Indeed, for those who are aware of the unprecedented dimensions of the current crisis in the world and the Church, no topic could be more ‘heated’ than reflecting on the signs of the times. The questions we barely dare to voice aloud sound like this: “Are we perhaps nearing the end of the road? Could the end of history be near?” However, before discussing the actual signs as conveyed in the sacred texts of the biblical canon, we must first address the ‘zero’ question: even if certain signs were left to us in the Bible, can we be sure that we can interpret them? More specifically, is it legitimate for us to even attempt to understand them? For those unfamiliar with Saint Augustine’s reasoning, my question may seem at least strange, so I hasten to offer some clarification.
If any person were capable of such knowledge, would that not contradict the categorical statement in the Gospel of Mark—“no man knoweth”?
Saint Augustine’s Prudent Skepticism
Living and dying shortly before the fall of the Roman Empire in 476, Saint Augustine was intensely concerned with eschatological issues. Up to his last major work, De Civitate Dei (The City of God), his writings contain numerous insights on eschatological signs in general and on the manifestation of the Antichrist in history in particular. Out of a certain prudence, perhaps, he developed a theory that seemed to close the door on speculations about the end of history. His argument is simple: the Savior Jesus Christ himself said, “But of that day or hour no man knoweth, neither the angels in heaven, nor the Son, but the Father” (Mark 13:32).
If our ignorance on such a subject is the result of a divine decree, how could we dare to think that we might decipher and recognize the Antichrist, since such an act would imply some degree—even an approximate one—of knowledge about the Second Coming of the Savior? If any person were capable of such knowledge, would that not contradict the categorical statement in the Gospel of Mark—“no man knoweth”? Saint Augustine believed it would. And yet, despite the enormous influence he exerted on Christian theology, his argument has often been overlooked—or even entirely ignored. Saint Thomas Aquinas, who in many respects was deeply influenced by Augustine’s legacy, offered his own interpretation—a spiritual-allegorical one—of Augustine’s position. However, the Council of Trent, following the line of certain Church Fathers who differed from Augustine, such as Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, definitively closed the discussion with a short but very clear statement recorded in the Roman Catechism (1566):
“Speaking of the last day, our Lord and Saviour declares that a general judgment will one day take place, and He describes the signs of its approach, that seeing them, we may know that the end of the world is at hand (Matthew 24:9)”.[3]
What the Roman Catechism Teaches Us
The teaching of the Catechism is very clear: Christians can know and understand—based on interpreting the eschatological signs from biblical prophecies—that the end of the world is near. Of course, this in no way implies exact knowledge of the timing of the Savior’s Second Coming (which is ruled out by the text from Matthew 24:9), but rather an understanding of its nearness. This possibility was spoken of more than a millennium before the Council of Trent by one of the greatest Saints and Doctors of the Church, Saint Cyril of Jerusalem. In his immortal Mystagogical Catecheses, he explained the following:
“But since looking for Christ we need to know the signs of the consummation, to save us from deception, destruction and delusion by the false Antichrist, the Apostle, divinely inspired, came by God's dispensation to the true teacher and said: ‘Tell us, when are these things to come, and what will be the sign of thy coming and the end of the world?’ (Matthew 24:3) We look for you to come again; but ‘Satan disguises himself as an angel of light.’ (2 Corinthians 11:14). You, also, my hearers, seeing Him now with the eyes of the mind, listen to Him repeating the same words to you: ‘Take care that no one leads you astray.’ This saying counsels you to pay heed to our words. For it is not a history of what is past, but a prophecy of the future, and what will surely come to pass. Not that we prophesy, for we are unworthy, but we bring before you what is written and we declare the signs. Observe how much of the prophecy has come true, how much still remains, and put yourself on guard.”[4]
Most disasters, however terrible, are not signs of the end. So, what are the magna signa? The Sacred Scriptures inform us that the general judgment will be preceded by these three principal signs: the preaching of the Gospel throughout the world, a falling away from the faith, and the coming of Antichrist.
What Are the Great Signs of the Approaching Day of Final Judgment?
If we accept that we can to some extent decipher signs of the imminence of the end of history, then what are the most significant signs? This question is entirely justified by the fact that Christ himself stated that certain catastrophic events are not actually indicators of the apocalypse:
“And you shall hear of wars and rumours of wars. See that ye be not troubled. For these things must come to pass, but the end is not yet” (Matthew 24:6).
Therefore, most disasters, however terrible, are not signs of the end. So, what are the magna signa? Two of the latest scholarly Doctors of Christian Tradition, Saints Robert Bellarmine and Alphonsus Mary of Liguori, attempted to provide comprehensive summaries on this matter. In his mini-treatise on the Antichrist, included in the first volume—De Romano Pontifice (1586)—of his monumental work Disputationes de Controversiis Christianae Fidei adversus hujus temporis Haereticos (Disputations on the Controversies of the Christian Faith against the Heretics of this Time), Bellarmine explains that the Holy Spirit has provided six such signs discernible in the Scriptures:
“Two preceding the Antichrist, namely, the preaching of the Gospel and the desolation of the Roman Empire; two accompanying it, certainly the preaching of Enoch and Elijah, and a great and remarkable persecution, so intense that public religion would altogether cease; and two subsequent signs, namely, the downfall of the Antichrist after three and a half years and the end of the world, which is presently still existing.”[5]
Nearly two centuries later, Saint Alphonsus wrote a commentary “sur les fins dernières” (“on the last things”) where he revisited the discussion on the great signs of the end of the world. Cautiously, he stated in a brief introduction that he was only expressing his own opinion on these matters, attributing to his words only “a purely human authority.” Let us take this lesson in prudence from one of the most learned saints in history! But what signs did Doctor zelantissimus identify?
The first is the preaching of the Gospel throughout the world, exactly as Saint Robert also affirmed. The second is the great apostasy by a significant number of Christians. The third is the complete destruction of the Empire and even the name ‘Roman.’ Thus, Bellarmine’s second sign is further detailed under Alphonsus’s second and third signs. The fourth sign is the coming of Christ’s final adversary, and the fifth is the preaching of Enoch and Elijah. The desolation of the Antichrist is included in the major sign of his historical manifestation, after which, naturally, the end will follow. As we can see, there is complete harmony—despite some nuances—between these two Doctors. Yet, we will give the final word to ecclesiastical authority, which clarified the issue of these signs in our second essential source—after Sacred Scripture—that we always consult: the Roman Catechism. Here, in a passage explicitly addressing our question, it states:
“The Sacred Scriptures inform us that the general judgment will be preceded by these three principal signs: the preaching of the Gospel throughout the world, a falling away from the faith, and the coming of Antichrist. This gospel of the kingdom, says our Lord, shall be preached in the whole world, for a testimony to all nations, and then shall the consummation come. The Apostle also admonishes us that we be not seduced by anyone, as if the day of the Lord were at hand; for unless there comes a revolt first, and the man of sin be revealed, the judgement will not come.”[6]
Despite appearances, there is no discrepancy between the Catechism’s teaching and the doctrines of the two Doctors. In the Catechism’s case, we find a reduction to the essential major eschatological signs. The first of these—preaching of the Gospel throughout the world—refers to the global spread of the Gospel. The second, which includes the desolation of the Roman Empire, emphasizes the gravest aspect: apostasy—namely, the abandonment of the true faith—on a large scale. It is also noteworthy that this event can only pertain to the Christians of the final age, for only those who know the faith can apostasize. Finally, the historical manifestation of the Antichrist (the third sign mentioned by the Catechism) may involve, of course, both the revelation and preaching of Enoch and Elijah and the desolation of the Antichrist before the glorious return of Christ.
Each of these major signs, therefore, requires our careful and prudent reflection. Although I will discuss all the signs mentioned by Saints Robert and Alphonsus, I will categorize them under the three outlined by the Roman Catechism. In this way we will gain a clear picture of the general framework that could allow us to interpret the biblical texts about the imminence of the Second Coming of our Lord Jesus Christ. Acknowledging the possibility of error, I believe that the present historical moment demands not only seriousness in such an investigation but, above all, profound humility—as crystallized in the words we address to God in the Pater Noster prayer:
“Fiat voluntas Tua, sicut in coelo, et in terra.”
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[1] Joseph Shaw (Editor), A Defence of Monarchy. Catholics Under a Protestant King, Angelico Press, 2023, p. 147.
[2] Joseph Ratzinger, The Theology of History in Saint Bonaventure, Franciscan Herald Press, 1971-1989, p. v.
[3] Catechism of the Council of Trent for Parish Priests, Translated by John McHugh O.P. and Charles J. Callan O.P., New York, 1923, p. 83. The original Latin text can be read in Ex Decreto Concilii Tridentini ad Parochos, Editio Stereotypa Quinta, Lipsiae, Ex Officina Bernhardi Tauchnitz, MDCCCLVI (1856), Quaestio IV, p. 67: “Quare Dominus et Salvator noster, quum de extremo die loqueretur, declaravit futurum aliquando generale iudicium, signaque adventantis eius temporis descripsit, ut, quum illa viderimus, finem saeculi prope esse intelligamus.”
[4] The Works of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, (The Fathers of the Church Series, Vol. 64), Volume 2, Translated by Leo P. McCauley S.J. and Anthony A. Stephenson, The Catholic University of America Press, 1970, pp. 56-57. The original Greek text can be read în Patrologiae Cursus Completus, Series Graeca, Accurante J.-P. Migne, Patrologiae Graecae Tomus XXXIII, Cyrillus Hierosolymitamus, Petrus II, Timotheus Alexandrini, Alii, Parisiis, 1857, col. 875-876.
[5] See the first paragraph of Chapter IV: The First proof: the Rule of the antiChrist has not yet begun, în St. Robert Bellarmine S.J., Antichrist, Translated by Ryan Grant, With a Foreword by Fr. Philip Wolfe, Mediatrix Press, 2016, p. 24.
[6] Catechism of the Council of Trent for Parish Priests, ed.cit., p. 84.
